A Homoerotic Plot in Ancient Egyptian Literature: Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare and General Sasenet

Ancient Egyptian literature rarely touched on the personal lives of pharaohs. In this respect, Pepi II is an exception. Particularly notable is the homoerotic Tale of King Neferkare and General Sasenet: for its era, narratives of this kind were seldom recorded in writing.

To begin, it is important to clarify who the main figure is.

Who Was Pepi II

Pharaoh Pepi II Neferkare, also known as Pepi, ruled Egypt during the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. His throne name was Neferkare — “Beautiful Is the Soul of Ra.”

He ascended the throne in the 2180s BCE, several centuries after the construction of the pyramids of Khufu. At the time of his accession he was about six years old; during the early years, his mother likely played a decisive role.

In foreign policy, Pepi II largely continued the course of his predecessors. The Egyptians maintained a presence on the Sinai Peninsula, where they extracted valuable resources, and developed trade with Nubia to the south.

Under his rule, the Old Kingdom weakened noticeably. Real power gradually shifted to local rulers: the nomarchs grew stronger, clashed with one another, and the central administration lost control over the regions. Shortly after the pharaoh’s death, Egypt fragmented, and the First Intermediate Period began.

The length of Pepi II’s reign remains a matter of debate. The priest Manetho, writing in the 3rd century BCE, claimed that the pharaoh ruled for 94 years — which would make it a record-breaking reign. However, only 62 years are reliably attested.

Few material traces of Pepi II have survived. Three statues are known: in the Brooklyn Museum he is depicted seated on his mother’s lap; in Cairo — as a naked child; in the Metropolitan Museum only the head is preserved. His funerary complex included a pyramid, now in ruins, and a temple, but they were more modest in scale than the monuments of his predecessors.

It is Pepi II who becomes the central figure of the ancient Egyptian Tale of King Neferkare and General Sasenet, also known as The Petitioner from Memphis. The key theme of this text is their homosexual relationship.

The Tale’s Plot: Key Episodes

The story opens by mentioning Pharaoh Neferkare — ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt, son of the god Ra, described as “true of voice.” The source characterizes him as a benevolent king.

Before the main plot, there is an episode involving a certain “petitioner from Memphis.” He tried to address the court, but court musicians drowned out his voice. Both the pharaoh and General Sasenet are present in this scene, which suggests that the petitioner was deliberately prevented from speaking.

It is possible that his speech contained a protest against the ruler’s relationship, which had already become the subject of rumors. In that case, this episode can be understood as a reflection of public reaction and as an attempt to lend the story a moral dimension. At the end of the scene, the petitioner, unable to hold back his tears, left Memphis.

The narrative then focuses on the pharaoh and Sasenet. When the general first appears, the text notes that he “had no wife” (jw-nn-wn-st-hmt m […]). The phrase may be restored as “there was no wife [with him]” (m[-=f]) or “there was no wife [in his house]” (m-[pr=f]). For an Egyptian, this was an unusual situation: without a wife and an heir, there would be no one to maintain his posthumous cult.

Sasenet’s high status and the absence of a spouse may indicate that his portrayal is linked to attraction to his own sex. At the same time, it remains unclear what is primary here — his unmarried state or his sexual preferences.

As for Neferkare’s own marital status, the text is silent, although it is known that he had several wives.

A new character then enters the story — Tjeti, son of Henet. He is a commoner who is given a rare opportunity to see the pharaoh:

“Then he, Tjeti, noticed: His Majesty, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Nefer-ka-Ra, who had gone out alone for a walk, with no one at all with him. Tjeti withdrew before the king, not letting him see him. Tjeti, son of Henet, stopped and thought: ‘If this is so, then the rumors that he goes out at night are true.’ Then Tjeti, son of Henet, followed this god [the pharaoh], not letting his heart reproach him, in order to observe his (that is, the king’s) every deed.

Then he [the pharaoh] reached the house of General Sasenet. He threw a brick, stamping with his foot. Then a ladder was lowered to him, and he climbed up. Meanwhile, Tjeti, son of Henet, waited until His Majesty came out. After His Majesty had done what he wished to do with him (that is, with the general), he went to his palace, with Tjeti behind him. Only after His Majesty reached the Great House [the palace] — may he live, be healthy, and be prosperous — did Tjeti go home.”

— The Tale of Tjeti, Son of Henet (Middle Kingdom): the episode of the pharaoh’s nighttime meeting with Sasenet

Particular attention should be paid to the word “desire” (mrwt) used in the text. It most likely indicates the nature of the relationship between the king and Sasenet. In this context, the term acquires a clearly sexual meaning, and the active role is attributed to the pharaoh. The sexual act itself is described in veiled terms, without explicit language — a feature that distinguishes this text from a number of other works from the same period.

The formula “to do what one wants with someone” in the ancient Egyptian language had an unambiguous sexual meaning. Comparable expressions appear, for example, in texts describing the union of gods and queens in the “Birth Cycle” of the Eighteenth Dynasty. This passage may parody earlier works that have not survived, or it may allude to ritual love-unions that were traditionally described in a restrained manner.

The story then continues with the theme of repeated nightly visits:

“As for His Majesty’s walk to the house of General Sasenet, it should be noted that four hours of the night had passed. Another four hours he spent in the house of General Sasenet. And when he entered the Great House, four hours remained until dawn. From that time on, Tjeti, son of Henet, followed him every night, not allowing his heart to accuse him. And only after His Majesty had gone up into the Great House did Tjeti return home …”

— The Tale of Tjeti, Son of Henet (Middle Kingdom), a description of repeated nightly visits

In the ancient Egyptian conception, the night was divided into 12 hours. Tjeti, of course, had no instruments for measuring time precisely, but he could orient himself by the stars.

The ruler’s secret meetings were apparently perceived as going beyond what was permitted. This is indicated both by the secrecy of the visits and by the rumors about the pharaoh’s nighttime outings. Judging by the text, the meetings were regular, and interest in them was strong enough that one of the courtiers decided to follow the king.

Like many other Egyptian works, the Tale of King Neferkare and General Sasenet has not survived in full: its ending is lost.

How Egyptologists Explain This Tale

The translator and historian Posener linked Neferkare’s long reign to political decline and suggested that the tale is satirical in character. According to this interpretation, the text ridicules the morals of the Old Kingdom on the eve of its collapse. However, this reading remains a hypothesis.

Even if the manuscript does condemn the king’s relationship, it does not follow that Egyptians in general considered homosexuality reprehensible. Rather, the problem may have been the very fact that the pharaoh — a sacred figure — entered into a relationship with an ordinary mortal. The king’s status was considered so exceptional that most subjects were likely forbidden even to touch him.

Posener also noted that in different periods, homosexuality was often interpreted as a sign of decadence. At the same time, ancient texts describing chaos in the country typically do not link such relationships to social degradation. In the tale itself, the tone is relatively light, but there is a hint of scandal — primarily because the pharaoh himself is involved.

Although the text conveys a degree of disapproval toward homosexual relationships, Neferkare is criticized not for his choice of partner, but for weakness as a ruler. Overall, his portrayal fits the type of the “bad” king known from the Egyptian literary tradition.

Some Egyptologists see here a motif of “royal corruption.” At the same time, the researcher Greenberg emphasizes that the author avoids direct and harsh judgments. Still, the pharaoh’s effort to conceal the relationship points to an ambiguous attitude toward such behavior: his attraction was apparently so strong that he sought opportunities for secret meetings — until he was exposed.

The Dutch historian Jacobus van Dijk drew attention to the fact that Egyptian art and literature are saturated with symbols and allusions, understood primarily by the educated elite. He suggested that the tale of Neferkare and Sasenet also contains such a mythological reference.

Van Dijk gave particular attention to the figure of the pharaoh’s lover. In his view, the choice of a military commander may not have been accidental. This status implied not only proximity to the king, but also symbolized the ritual humiliation of enemies. Read in this way, the scene acquires a parodic meaning and mocks conventional ideas about power and submission.

The text may contain yet another parodic layer. The night is divided into three parts of four hours each. According to mythological tradition, the mystical union of Ra and Osiris lasted for the same duration. In the myth, Ra passed through the underworld at night, and Osiris transmitted to him the power needed for rebirth at dawn. Their mysterious union lasted exactly four hours — the same amount of time that, in the tale, the pharaoh spent with the commander.

Overtly sexual motifs are absent from this myth. Nevertheless, ancient texts state that the gods “embraced each other,” and that Ra, becoming one with Osiris, was called “Horus in the embrace of his father.” In the morning, the sun god was reborn, rising from these embraces. The birth of the young Horus as the son of Osiris also admits an interpretation as a “bond of a special kind,” though not in the conventional sense.

This myth, which the Egyptians called “the great mystery,” expressed one of the central aspects of their religion. In the tale of Neferkare’s nighttime meetings with the general, it essentially becomes an object of ridicule. Like the sun god, the pharaoh rises at dawn in his palace, which is called “the horizon where Ra dwells.” Neferkare himself appears as an embodiment of the father-god.

The sexual subtext of the scene appears to be deliberately foregrounded. Posener compared it with Eighteenth Dynasty texts in which an almost identical formula describes Amun’s union with a queen and the subsequent birth of a divine king: “…after His Majesty had done with her everything he desired.”

In Van Dijk’s view, the satirical layer of this story is fairly clear. Neferkare’s conduct is condemned as falling short of the ideal of maat — the cosmic order and justice — especially since the subject is a king. At the same time, the tale was apparently also intended to entertain.

How exactly the “Story of Neferkare” was received in Ancient Egypt is difficult to establish. However, educated listeners likely grasped its double meaning: for some it may have been amusing, for others — shocking, or even blasphemous. Ultimately, the author dared to parody one of the most important myths of Egyptian religion.

How We Know This Tale: Sources and Dating

The French Egyptologist Georges Posener introduced this ancient Egyptian literary work — the Tale of King Neferkare and General Sasenet — into scholarly circulation.

The text survives in three fragmentary copies, dated to the period between 1295 and 656 BCE — that is, the late New Kingdom and the subsequent eras. Scholars believe, however, that the tale itself was composed much earlier. Posener, on the basis of language, style, and references to historical figures, dated it to the end of the Middle Kingdom — long before the Nineteenth Dynasty.

Three sources have survived to the present day: – a wooden writing tablet from the Eighteenth or Nineteenth Dynasty, kept at the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures at the University of Chicago; – an ostracon from the Twentieth Dynasty, found at Deir el-Medina — a settlement of craftsmen who worked in the Valley of the Kings; – the Papyrus Chassinat I (Louvre E 25351) from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, preserved in the Louvre. It contains three pages, but the first is almost entirely lost.

The tale belongs to an elite written tradition. It was copied and read over several centuries, preserving its place in the literary culture of Egypt.

Full Translation: Surviving Fragments

Fragment, tOIC 13539

(Once it happened that His Majesty, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nefer)-ka-Ra, Son of Ra, True of Voice, was a [gracious] king [throughout this entire land]. Now there was also a hereditary prince (and) /// of His Majesty, (one) ///, named Ity. [/// /// ///] love [///] General Sasenet, who had no wife [in his house].

[And so] General Sasenet [went out for a walk], to amuse himself. [///////] Son of Ra, Tjeti, True of Voice…

pChassinat I = pLouvre E 25351

… General Sa[senet]. He was discussing [//////] with His Majesty, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nefer-ka-[Ra]. Then General Sasenet proceeded [/////] to the great [///], the overseer of the king’s musicians (?), the chief steward of the estates, the chamberlain, [//////] the royal scribe, the bearer of the writing board of the royal scribe, the chief of the fields, [//////] the [courtiers (?)] of the re[sidence] and the [council members (?)] of Memphis, without going into [//////] Memphis.

Meanwhile, the [petitioner (?)] from Memphis reached the [overseer of the gate (?)]. He ///// with the singing of singers, with the music of musicians, with the rejoicing of the rejoicers, until the petitioner left Memphis because of their [///]. [They] stopped [//////]. When the petitioner went out from Memphis to speak with the overseer of the gate, he made (?) the singers sing, the musicians play, the rejoicers rejoice, the celebrants celebrate, until the petitioner left Memphis without being heard, when they stopped arguing with him. Weeping bitterly, the petitioner left Memphis; his hair was ///////////////

Then he (a certain Tjeti) noticed (?) His Majesty, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nefer-ka-Ra, who had gone out for a walk alone, without an escort. Tjeti drew back before the king, not letting him see him. Tjeti, son of Henet, stood still, thinking as follows: “If this is so, then the rumors about his nightly walks are true.”

Then Tjeti, son of Henet, followed this god, not allowing his heart to condemn him, in order to observe each of his (that is, the king’s) actions. Then he reached the house of General Sasenet. He threw a brick after stamping his foot. Then they let down a ladder to him, and he climbed up.

Meanwhile Tjeti, son of Henet, waited until His Majesty departed. After His Majesty had done what he wished to do with him (that is, with the general), he went to the palace, and Tjeti followed him. Only when His Majesty reached the Great House — life, prosperity, health — did Tjeti go home.

As for His Majesty’s walk to the house of General Sasenet, it should be noted that four hours of the night had passed. He spent another four hours in the house of General Sasenet. And when he entered the Great House, four hours remained until dawn.

From that moment on, Tjeti, son of Henet, followed him every night, not allowing his heart to condemn him. And only after His Majesty [the king] entered the [Great House, did Tjeti return home…]

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